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Emotion is any characterized by intense mental activity and a certain degree of. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no on a definition. Emotion is often with,,,, and. In some theories, is an important aspect of emotion.
Those acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of our believing that we are in a dangerous situation and the subsequent arousal of our body's nervous system (rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of our feeling afraid. Other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. Emotions are complex. According to some theories, they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior. The of emotion is closely linked to of the with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions.
Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency. Extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the driving force behind, positive or negative. According to other theories, emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of components, which might include motivation, feeling, behavior, and physiological changes, but no one of these components is the emotion. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components.
Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience,, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. At one time, academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components: with a subjective experience, with instrumental behavior, with physiological changes, and so on. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components. The different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline.
In and, emotion typically includes a, characterized primarily by,, and. A similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in.
For example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (anger, surprise, etc.), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts. Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades with many fields contributing including,,,,,, and. The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic.
Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition and scans help study the affective processes in the brain. 'Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity.' Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes. The original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the survival of humans. Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events. Main article: A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions.
Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions. For example, an irritable person is generally disposed to feel more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of 'affective states' where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as and, motivational states (for example, or ), moods, dispositions and traits. The classification of emotions has mainly been researched from two fundamental viewpoints. The first viewpoint is that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs while the second viewpoint asserts that emotions can be characterized on a dimensional basis in groupings.
Basic emotions [ ]. Examples of basic emotions For more than 40 years, has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions.
His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic:,,,, and. Agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the ', suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation. Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example, interpersonal and could blend to form. Relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.
Multi-dimensional analysis [ ]. Two Dimensions of Emotion Through the use of, psychologists can map out similar emotional experiences, which allows a visual depiction of the 'emotional distance' between experiences. A further step can be taken by looking at the map's dimensions of the emotional experiences. The emotional experiences are divided into two dimensions known as (how negative or positive the experience feels) and (how energized or enervated the experience feels).
These two dimensions can be depicted on a 2D coordinate map. This two-dimensional map was theorized to capture one important component of emotion called.
Core affect is not the only component to emotion, but gives the emotion its hedonic and felt energy. The idea that core affect is but one component of the emotion led to a theory called “psychological construction.” According to this theory, an emotional episode consists of a set of components, each of which is an ongoing process and none of which is necessary or sufficient for the emotion to be instantiated. The set of components is not fixed, either by human evolutionary history or by social norms and roles.
Instead, the emotional episode is assembled at the moment of its occurrence to suit its specific circumstances. One implication is that all cases of, for example, fear are not identical but instead bear a family resemblance to one another.
Theories [ ]. See also: Ancient Greece, Ancient China, the Islamic Golden Age, and the Middle Ages [ ] Theories about emotions stretch back to at least as far as the stoics of Ancient Greece and Ancient China. In China, excessive emotion was believed to cause damage to, which in turn, damages the vital organs. The four humours theory made popular by contributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it did for. During the, Persian theorized about the influence of emotions on health and behaviors, suggesting the need to manage emotions. Regarded emotion in varying ways. In theories it was seen as a hindrance to and therefore a hindrance to virtue.
Believed that emotions were an essential component of. In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities.
During the, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by and in particular. There are also theories of emotions in the works of philosophers such as,,, and. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an psychiatric perspective. Evolutionary theories [ ].
Illustration from 's. 19th century Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid-late 19th century with 's 1872 book. Darwin argued that emotions actually served a purpose for humans, in communication and also in aiding their survival.
Darwin, therefore, argued that emotions evolved via and therefore have universal counterparts. Darwin also detailed the virtues of experiencing emotions and the parallel experiences that. This led the way for animal research on emotions and the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.
Contemporary More contemporary views along the spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment. Current research [ ] suggests that emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by and.
Research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see ). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared. Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status. Somatic theories [ ] theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories came from in the 1880s. The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as,, and who are able to appeal to neurological evidence. [ ] James–Lange theory [ ].
Main article: In his 1884 article argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an 'exciting fact' directly led to a physiological response, known as 'emotion.' To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the. As James wrote, 'the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion.'
James further claims that 'we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and either we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.' An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear). This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state.
Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions, for example, 'I'm crying because I'm sad,' or 'I ran away because I was scared.' The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory). Although mostly abandoned in its original form, Tim Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of the James-Lange theory of emotions. The James–Lange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity.
Most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified James–Lange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion.' 583) Cannon–Bard theory [ ].
Main article: agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain emotional experiences. He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion. He also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses.
An example of this theory in action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion. Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals.
Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the (particularly the ), before being subjected to any further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously. Two-factor theory [ ]. Main article: A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (for example, anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (for example, increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements (for example, smiling, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational. One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: 2009).
Two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions. When people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for Self, other and situation are met or not met. People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals.
Turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience. Based on this analysis, he identified four emotions that all researchers consider being founded on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion-fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness. These four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences. These more elaborate emotions are called first-order elaborations in Turner's theory and they include sentiments such as pride, triumph, and awe.
Emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant. Attempts are frequently made to regulate emotion according to the conventions of the society and the situation based on many (sometimes conflicting) demands and expectations which originate from various entities. Serial Number Of Carrier Command Patch there. The emotion of anger is in many cultures discouraged in girls and women (expression of anger is also discouraged in men because a man is seen as a threat if he shows anger, which causes people to avoid him or treat him as a danger - particularly women), while fear is discouraged in boys and men.
Expectations attached to social roles, such as 'acting as man' and not as a woman, and the accompanying 'feeling rules' contribute to the differences in expression of certain emotions. Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures. Some social institutions are seen as based on certain emotion, such as in the case of contemporary institution of.
In advertising, such as health campaigns and political messages, emotional appeals are commonly found. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaigns emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time. (1915/1965) wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian aborigine society.
He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped. These feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects. In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992), pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the 'looking glass' that the gestures and reactions of others provide. Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action.
Retzinger (1991) conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990) developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions. Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004) formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967) into everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity. There is a growing body of research applying the sociology of emotion to understanding the learning experiences of students during classroom interactions with teachers and other students (for example, Milne & Otieno, 2007; Olitsky, 2007; Tobin, et al., 2013; Zembylas, 2002 ).
These studies show that learning subjects like science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional climate. Apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology of emotion, other approaches have been classed into one of 6 other categories (Turner, 2009) including: • evolutionary/biological theories, • symbolic interactionist theories, • dramaturgical theories, • ritual theories, • power and status theories, • stratification theories, and • exchange theories. This list provides a general overview of different traditions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes conceptualise emotion in different ways and at other times in complementary ways. Many of these different approaches were synthesized by Turner (2007) in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce one comprehensive sociological account that draws on developments from many of the above traditions.
Psychotherapy and regulation [ ] Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience. For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.). Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of approach the regulation of emotion differently.
Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as. Final Fantasy 7 Roms Tony. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary ). Cross-cultural research [ ] Research on emotions reveals the strong presence of cross-cultural differences in emotional reactions and that emotional reactions are likely to be culture-specific. In strategic settings, research on emotions is required for understanding the psychological situation of a given population or specific actors. This implies the need to comprehend the current emotional state, mental disposition or other behavioral motivation of a target audience located in a different culture, basically founded on its national political, social, economic, and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the influence of circumstances and events. Computer science [ ]. In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were (1842–1910) and (1834–1900).
James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause. (1911–1991) developed the Affect theory and Script theory.
The introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion, which he called the affected system, was the motivating force in human life. Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in the last decade.
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